Visual Culture: March 2014

WHEN DISCUSSING PHOTOGRAPHY, I MENTIONED THAT SOME CAMERA OPERATORS WERE MORE INTERESTED IN A FINE ART APPLICATION OF THIS NEW INVENTION WHILE OTHERS WERE INTERESTED IN ITS DOCUMENTARY POTENTIAL. YET OTHERS WERE INTERESTED IN USING PHOTOGRAPHY'S OBSERVATIONAL PROPERTIES IN THE INTEREST OF SCIENCE.

IN THE 1870's ENGLISHMAN EADWEARD MUYBRIDGE CREATED A SEQUENCING OF STRATEGICALLY PLACED CAMERAS TO RECORD AND BETTER UNDERSTAND HUMAN AND ANIMAL MOVEMENT.

IN 1872, THE QUESTION WAS ASKED, “IS THERE EVER A POINT WHERE A HORSE’S FEET ARE ALL OFF THE GROUND AT ONCE?”

IN THE 1880's, FRENCHMAN, JULES-ETIENNE MAREY INVENTED A SHOOTING GUN THAT COULD RAPIDLY RECORD MANY SEQUENTIAL SHOTS AT ONCE.

MUYBRIDGE’S IMAGES WERE ON GLASS PLATES. IN 1888, MAREY CREATED THE FIRST FILM STRIP- IT WAS MADE OF PAPER AND THE MOVING IMAGE LASTED 1 SECOND

HERE ARE A FEW MODERN ANIMATIONS CREATED USING BOTH OF THESE MEN'S WORK

MUYBRIDGE'S RUNNING HORSE

MAREY'S FALLING CAT

IN 1889 KODAK PRODUCED CELLULOID FILM- FLEXIBLE BUT STURDY.
THOMAS EDISON IN THE USA AND THE LUMIERE BROS. (LOUIS AND AUGUSTE) IN FRANCE WERE FIRST DEVELOPERS OF MOTION PICTURES.

THE ILLUSION OF REALISM OF STILL IMAGES IS ENHANCED BY SENSE OF REAL TIME IN PROJECTED MOVING IMAGES.
“MOTION” PICTURES ARE NOT ACTUALLY IN MOTION- BUT A SUCCESSION OF STILL PHOTOGRAPHS PROJECTED SO MANY FRAMES PER SECOND
SEVERAL FACTORS ARE AT WORK HERE:

PERSISTENCE OF VISION- AN IMAGE LINGERS ON THE RETINA FOR A SPLIT SECOND AFTER IT DISAPPEARS

APPARENT MOTION- HUMAN TENDENCY TO READ LIGHT AS MOTION- A SERIES OF FLASHING LIGHTS ARE SEEN AS 1 MOVING LIGHT

CRITICAL FLICKER FUSION- PROJECTOR BREAKS UP EACH FRAME SEVERAL TIMES AS IF LIGHT IS FLASHING ON/OFF

IN EARLY FILMS THERE WAS NO FLICKER FUSION FROM FRAME TO FRAME AND FRAMES PROJECTED AT SLOWER SPEED- 16-20 FPS INSTEAD OF USUAL 24. THIS HAD EFFECT OF MAKING IMAGE LOOK LIKE IT WAS FLICKERING- THUS THE SLANG TERM OF “FLICK” FOR MOTION PICTURES.

EARLY FILMS WERE SIMPLE- ONE LONG SHOT OF A MORE OR LESS EVERYDAY ACTION OR SIMPLE ENTERTAINMENT- THE IDEA OF THE MOTION WAS MAGICAL ENOUGH TO HOLD THE AUDIENCE'S ATTENTION

LUMIERE BROS FACTORY EXIT

EVEN AFTER NARRATIVE WAS STANDARD, AND TRICKS SUCH AS STOP MOTION WERE INVOLVED, THE MOVEMENT OF THE CAMERA WAS MINIMAL OR IT WAS EVEN STATIONARY. THIS LACK OF CAMERA MOVEMENT STILL KEEPS THE VIEWER AT A REMOVE- AS IN A PLAY, THE "FOURTH WALL" IS REMOVED BUT THE VIEWER HAS NOT YET BEEN COMPLETELY INSERTED INTO THE NARRATIVE AS THEY WILL IN LATER FILMS.

GEORGE MELIES "TRESORS DE SATAN"

BY 1920, THE STUDIO SYSTEM WE KNOW TODAY WAS ALREADY IN PLACE- PARAMOUNT, MGM, UNIVERSAL, 20^TH CENT FOX, ETC. WITH THIS WE SEE THE COMPLETE APPLICATION OF THE NARRATIVE STYLE THAT TELLS A STORY AND BEGINNINGS OF THE STAR SYSTEM.

HERE, MULVEY'S IDEAS OF THE DOMINANT MALE GAZE ARE FIRMLY IN PLACE. WE CAN SEE A VARIETY OF "GAZES" IN OLD AND NEW FILMS, BUT THIS THEORY OF THE GAZE CAN BE SEEN WHEN LOOKING AT OLDER AND CONTEMPORARY FILM:

SCENE FROM VIVA LAS VEGAS, 1964

SCENE FROM DIE ANOTHER DAY, 2002

ONE REASON FOR WHY IT IS IMPORTANT TO REVIEW THE HISTORY OF FILM DEVELOPMENT IS THAT WE WERE ALL BORN INTO AN AGE WHERE THE EFFECTS OF PHOTOGRAPHY AND MOTION PICTURES ON HUMAN BEINGS IS ALREADY INCORPORATED- WE TEND TO IGNORE THE BASIC EFFECTS OF THE MEDIA ON CULTURE- WE ARE MORE SOPHISTICATED VIEWERS IN THAT WE WON’T RUN, DUCK, OR SCREAM WHEN AN IMAGE OF A TRAIN IS PROJECTED AS EARLY AUDIENCES DID.

BUT WE STILL EXPERIENCE A “SUSPENSION OF DISBELIEF” IN WHICH WE GIVE OURSELVES OVER TO THE NARRATIVE.
WE ALLOW OURSELVES TO FORGET THAT EVENTS ARE STAGED
WE EVEN FORGET THAT WE KNOW WHO THE FAMOUS ACTORS ARE IN FAVOR OF IDENTIFYING WITH CERTAIN CHARACTERS.
IN SOME CASES WE MAY EVEN KNOW THE END OF THE STORY BUT WE STILL ALLOW OURSELVES TO GET CAUGHT UP IN THE UNFOLDING ACTION.
CERTAINLY MULVEY'S IDEAS ARE A PART OF WHAT IS AT WORK IN THIS SUSPENSE OF DISBELIEF:

THE PLEASURE OF LOOKING, SCOPOPHILIA, AND
THE VIEWER’S TENDENCY TO PROJECT THEIR OWN FANTASIES ONTO THE SCREEN- THEIR DESIRE TO BECOME THE PROTAGONIST OF THE FILM’S NARRATIVE- THE DESIRE/WISH TO TRANSCEND THE MEDIUM AND BE THE PERFECT AND ADORED STAR (THE IMAGE IDEAL FROM LACAN'S MIRROR STAGE)

DIRECTORS MANIPULATE THE VIEWER’S PERCEPTION OF THE ACTION BY FACTORS OTHER THAN THE STORY ITSELF.

THESE ARE:

CINEMATOGRAPHY
EDITING
SOUND
MISE-EN-SCENE

CINEMATOGRAPHY

FILM STOCK AND EXPOSURE- RANGE OF BLACK AND WHITE FILMS USED OVER HISTORY GIVES CHARACTERISTIC LOOK, EXPOSURE CONTROLS HOW DIM OR BRIGHT FILM IS OVERALL REGARDLESS OF LIGHTING
LENS FOCAL LENGTH EFFECTS SENSE OF SPACE- WIDE-ANGLE LENS HAS SHORT FOCAL LENGTH, TELEPHOTO LENS HAS LONG-FOCAL LENGTH- BOTH OF THESE CAN BE USED STRATEGICALLY TO DISTORT PERSPECTIVE- A LONG HALLWAY FOR EXAMPLE:

THE END OF THE HALLWAY CAN LOOK FAR AWAY WITH WIDE ANGLE LENS (SHORT FOCAL LENGTH)

OR THE ENTIRE SPACE CAN BECOME COMPACTED AND ABSTRACTED IN A SENSE WITH TELEPHOTO (LONG FOCAL LENGTH)

DEPTH OF FIELD OR FOCUS CAN DIRECT VIEWER TO IMPORTANT ACTION- A SHALLOW FOCUS FOCUSES ON ONE PLANE AND ALL OTHERS BLUR WHILE A DEEP FOCUS KEEPS EVERYTHING IN THE SHOT IN CRISP FOCUS
FRAMING- BOUNDING OF THE IMAGE

ON SCREEN VS OFFSCREEN SPACE- WHAT DOES THE FILM MAKER CHOOSE TO SHOW VS WHAT DO WE ACCEPT AS BEING A NON-VISIBLE PART OF WHAT IS SHOWN- ESSENTIALLY 6 DIRECTIONS OF OFF SCREEN SPACE- UP, DOWN, SIDE, SIDE, IN FRONT OF, BEHIND
ANGLE, LEVEL, AND HEIGHT- THE CAMERA CAN LOOK UP, ACROSS, OR DOWN, AND ITS LEVEL CAN BE HIGH UP OR NEAR THE GROUND.
DISTANCE- LONG SHOT, MEDIUM SHOT, CLOSE-UP

EXTREME LONG SHOT SHOWS LANDSCAPE, CITYSCAPE- PEOPLE QUITE SMALL,
LONG SHOTS OF PEOPLE ARE WHOLE WITHIN FRAME,
MEDIUM SHOT- PEOPLE ARE CLOSER- WAIST UP FOR EXAMPLE,
MEDIUM CLOSE-UP IS HEAD AND CHEST
CLOSE-UP USUALLY JUST HEAD OR SMALLER (FACE, EYES)

POINT-OF VIEW SHOT SHOWS SCENE FROM CHARACTERS POV.

CAMERA MOVEMENT AND ZOOM- PAN FROM LEFT TO RIGHT OR ZOOM IN FROM A DISTANCE, IS IT SMOOTH (CAMERA ON A TRACK IN FILMING) OR SHAKY (HAND HELD)
DURATION OF THE IMAGE (OF THE SHOT)

WARHOL’S EMPIRE STATEBUILDING WHICH SHOWS THE CHANGES OF LIGHT ON EMPIRE STATE BLDG OVER A PERIOD OF 24 HOURS IS AN EXAGERATED EXAMPLE OF THE LONG TAKE.

EDITING

RELATION OF SHOTS/TAKES TO EACH OTHER
CAN SEE IT AS A GRAPHIC SET-UP- A SORT OF SHIFTING COLLECTION OF ABSTRACT IMAGES- CONTRASTS OF LIGHT AND DARK SHAPES OR COLORS
SETS PACE- THINK ABOUT THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A SUCESSION OF SHORT SHOTS VERSUS ONE LONG SHOT. EDITORS CREATE A SORT OF RHYTHM THROUGH THE COMBINATION OF SHOTS
EDITING COMMUNICATES SENSE OF SPACE- IT CAN SHOW THE RELATION OF THINGS TO EACH OTHER - SUCH AS MIXING LONG SHOTS OF AN ENTIRE SCENE WITH CLOSE-UPS - OR IT CAN DENY SPACE BY NEVER SHOWING THE WHOLE –IMAGINE A FILM IN WHICH ALL CHARACTERS WHO INTERACT ARE ALWAYS SHOWN INDIVUDALLY AND IN EXTREME CLOSE-UP.
EDITING COMMUNICATES TIME- IT CAN SHOW DIFFERENT UNCONNECTED ACTIONS HAPPENING SIMULATEOUSLY THROUGH EDITING- PARALLEL EDITS
ALSO WITH TIME- STORY MAY TAKE PLACE OVER HOURS, DAYS, YEARS, BUT EDITING GIVES A SENSE OF TIME ELAPSING- SHOTS OF A MAN AT BEGINNING OF LONG STREET, IN MIDDLE, AND AT END CAN TAKE PLACE IN A SECOND WHILE THE REAL TIME OF THAT EVENT MAY HAVE TAKEN MINUTES- THIS COMMUNICATES PASSAGE OF TIME TO VIEWERS AND IS CALLED ELLIPTICAL TIME

SOUND

SOUNDTRACK IS RECORDED SEPARATELY
DIALOGUE- CAN MANIPULATE THROUGH VOLUME/CLARITY – SHOUTING WITHIN A CROWD OR QUIET DIALOGUE ALONE IN ECHOING ROOM HAVE DIFFERENT EFFECTS
MUSIC- CAN ADD TO EMOTIONAL EFFECT- CAN DRAW ATTENTION TO IMPORTANT MOMENT OR FORESHADOW LATER EVENTS
OTHER SOUNDS- CARS, FOOTSTEPS, BARKING DOGS- ALL HAVE POTENTIAL OF ADDING OR TAKING AWAY FROM REALISM, ADDING TEXTURE TO SCENE, BRIDGING SCENES, ETC.

MISE-EN-SCENE
THESE ARE ALL OF THE ELEMENTS WITHIN THE SHOT OR “ON THE STAGE” THAT CAN BE MANIPULATED ACCORDING TO DIRECTOR’S VISION AND WHICH AFFECT THE VIEWER’S READING OF THE FILM

SETTING (THIS IS THE PLACE WHERE ACTION TAKES PLACE AND ALL OF THE FURNISHINGS AND PROPS FOUND WITHIN IT.)

COSTUME AND MAKE-UP

THESE BOTH CAN ADD CONTINUITY- COLOR PALETTE TEXTURES CAN BLEND OR BE HARMONIOUS WITHIN SCENE, FROM SCENE TO SCENE, OR CAN BE VISUALLY STRIKING TO EMPHASIZE THE PERSON OR PLACE. CAN BE USED SYMBOLICALLY- SCARLET OHARA’S RED DRESS WAS OVERTLY SYMBOLIG. ACTORS CAN BECOME ASSOCIATED WITH DIFFERENT COLORS OR PATTERNS. COLORS CAN BE USED DIFFERENTLY FROM PLACE TO PLACE- THINK OZ VS KANSAS- MORE SUBTLE DIFFERENCES IN OTHER FILMS

MANY FILMS TRY FOR HISTORICAL ACCURACY. ANY ITEMS WITHIN A SET OR A COSTUME THAT DO NOT CONFORM TO OUR EXPECTATIONS OF THIS ACCURACY WOULD STICK OUT AND CAUSE DISUNITY OR WOULD NEED TO BE SEEN AS SYMBOLIC- PURPOSEFULLY INACCURATE- THINK OF BAS LUHRMAN’S ROMEO AND JULIET OR MOULIN ROUGE, FOR EXAMPLE.

LIGHTING

CAN SHOW WHAT’S IMPORTANT, SET MOOD, SENSE OF TIME.
LIGHT COLOR, DIRECTION, SOURCE, QUALITY

EXPRESSIONS AND MOVEMENTS OF THE CHARACTERS

WITHIN ANY MOVIE, THERE NEEDS TO BE ORGANIZATION- PRINCIPLES OR RELATIONSHIPS THAT UNIFY THE FILM. JUST LIKE IN FINE ART AND DESIGN, THERE IS A SET OF ORGANIZING PRINCIPLES IN FILM: